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Abbreviations Akt Protein kinase B CDKs Cyclin-dependent kinases ERK Extracellular-signal-regulated kinases IB Inhibitor of NF-B IKK IB kinase IGF Insulin-like growth factor IL-1 Interleukin-1 IL-2 Interleukin-2 IL-6 Interleukin-6 JNK C-Jun N-terminal kinases LPS Lipopolysaccharides MAPK Mitogen-activated protein kinase MREs Metal-response elements MT Metallothionein MTF-1 Metal-regulatory transcription factor 1 NF-B Nuclear factor kappa B NK cells Natural killer cells PI3K Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase ROS Reactive oxygen species SOD Superoxide dismutase Sp1 Specificity protein 1 TNF- Tumor necrosis factor-alpha TRAF2 TNF receptor-associated factor 2 ZnT1 Zinc transporter 1 ZnT2 Zinc transporter 2 ZnT3 Zinc transporter 3 ZnT4 Zinc transporter 4 Authors contributions ZLC: Conceptualization, Visualization and Writing original draft

doi: 10.1093/plphys/kiac095 132 ZhaoM.YangS.LiuX.WuK

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Stable isotope analysis further enables origin and age authentication, while 1D/2D NMR resolves breed-specific differences through markers such as carnosine and anserine